Anthropologists have engaged in more than just defining culture; they have also conducted comparative studies to formulate generalisations about various attributes of culture. Through this research, they aim to gain a deeper understanding of the common elements that characterise cultural phenomena across different societies.
Ethos and Eidos.
Kroeber identifies two aspects of culture: eidos and ethos. Eidos represents the formal appearance of a culture based on its components, while ethos reflects the culture’s disposition, themes, and interests. Similarly, Bateson defines culture’s two aspects as the emotional emphases (ethos) and cognitive processes (eidos) within it.
Explicit and Implicit Elements.
Kluckhohn notes that not all aspects of a culture can be understood through sensory observation alone. The visible elements of culture are explicit, while the underlying motivations and impulses, often unconscious to the individuals themselves, are implicit. A comprehensive study of any culture must incorporate both explicit and implicit items.
Culture Determinism.
The Marxian perspective asserts that cultural ideologies and social structures are built upon economic organisation, while cultural determinists argue that society itself is a product of culture. Taylor believed culture is acquired through social membership, but cultural determinists maintain that culture is the foundation of everything else, governed by its own laws, independent of biology, psychology, or society. This view, initially associated with Kroeber and termed the super-organic perspective, has evolved to emphasise the role of individuals in shaping culture. As evidence mounted that individuals influence culture, cultural determinists posited that culture operates ‘as if’ independent of individuals. Leslie White represents this viewpoint, which tends to overlook the mutual relationship between humans and culture; people simultaneously create and are shaped by culture.
Culture vis-à-vis the Individual.
Linton suggests that for most conforming individuals, culture serves as a vital guide, establishing norms of behaviour essential for personal and social survival. While culture liberates humanity from biological determinism, it demands a price: the surrender of complete independence. To thrive within society, one must conform to its ways, which the average person does. Thus, culture both liberates and enslaves. In contrast, a nonconforming minority—referred to as ‘mystics’ by Bergson and ‘the creative minority’ by Toynbee—uses culture as a framework to introduce new ideas, aiming to change it constructively rather than destructively. This perspective shifts away from Carlyle’s notion that heroes shape history.
Culture and Civilisation.
Morgan proposed that human society evolved through three stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilisation. Civilisation, marked by urbanisation, writing, metallurgy, and science, represents a distinct type of culture. While most anthropologists align with this view, German idealists and some American sociologists like Maclver differentiate between culture and civilisation. Culture embodies moral, spiritual, and intellectual achievements—it’s intrinsic to humanity and can reflect progress or decline. In contrast, civilisation is external, encompassing technology, material culture, and social institutions, representing what we possess but cannot progress or decline on its own.
Culture Trait and Culture Complex.
Culture refers to the way of life and includes elements like prayer, ritual, and tool-making, which are known as cultural traits. When multiple cultural traits combine to form a meaningful segment within a larger culture, it is called a culture complex. This complex arises from the interaction of various institutions and is defined as the pattern of interrelation among cultural traits.