Social stratification is a complex concept that describes the hierarchical organization of various groups within society, structured like layers or strata. This system of stratification results in unequal access to critical resources and opportunities, including material wealth, political power, levels of human welfare, educational attainment, and symbolic attributes such as prestige and recognition. The privileges associated with higher social positions create distinct advantages that are typically unavailable to individuals in lower-status groups. Consequently, those in elevated positions often demonstrate a vested interest in maintaining their privileged status and the associated social structures that support it.

Historically, social stratification emerged prominently during the later stages of human development, most notably with the rise of agricultural practices around 10,000 years ago. The establishment of agriculture facilitated the accumulation of surplus resources, which in turn fostered greater social differentiation. As societies evolved into agricultural and later industrial or digital frameworks, the marked disparity in social inequality became increasingly pronounced, shaping various aspects of life, including economic systems, cultural norms, and individual opportunities across different classes.

It is essential to note that stratification is not a universal characteristic of all societies. For instance, most foraging societies—those that rely on hunting and gathering—tend to exhibit minimal or no significant status inequalities. In pastoralist and horticultural contexts, status differences can manifest, but these societies often incorporate levelling mechanisms that help to prevent the emergence of extreme inequalities, thereby promoting social cohesion and collective welfare.

Several intersecting categories can affect one’s social status, including class, race, ethnicity, gender, and rank. A particularly illustrative case is India’s caste system, which is a historically entrenched social hierarchy dividing the population into distinct groups (castes) based on birth. Each caste is associated with specific rights, privileges, and social roles, creating a rigid framework that has substantial implications for individual opportunities and societal interactions. Even though the Indian constitution prohibits discrimination based on caste, caste-based inequalities remain prevalent in practice. Similarly, racism persists in various societies despite being illegal, exemplifying how systemic inequalities can endure over time.

Patterns of social inequality are not static; they can evolve in response to different social, political, and economic forces. Positive changes often stem from intentional policy shifts made by governing bodies, such as the formal end of apartheid in South Africa, which dismantled a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination. Additionally, grassroots social movements play a crucial role in contesting unequal conditions, mobilizing communities to advocate for change and social justice. These movements highlight the dynamic nature of social stratification and the potential for collective action to reduce inequality and foster a more equitable society.